Theories of Interpersonal Perception and Self Presentation

Theories of Interpersonal Perception and Self Presentation Christian S. Bautista Social Psychology Interpersonal Relationship Solomon Asch (1946) found out that when information is given about another person, some parts of that information are given more importance than others. He called this central trait, which he said we are using to make decisions about the personality of the other person. In his warm-cold study, Asch felt that traits like warm and cold when put in conjunction with traits like practical or determined produced a completely different overall impressions. However, S. Nauts et al argued that Asch’s data (1946), do not provide clear evidence for a primacy of warmth effect; the open-ended responses that were important to Asch’s theorizing were not systematically analysed; the trait-pair choice measure seems unfit to test primacy of warmth; and the results of the ranking measure suggest that warmth was not central in determining participant’s impression. Stereotyping is an assumption we make about other people that maybe unconscious, but that influence our perception of others. Stereotypes can be split into two basic forms; individual and group stereotypes. However, negative stereotypes can lead to group polarization and prejudice, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) (cited in Payne, S. and Walker, J., 1996, p 191) classroom experiment illustrated this. Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study became popular as it seemed to provide a powerful explanation for the low achievement of the so-called disadvantaged students. However, it was also criticized by educational psychologists on conceptual, methodological and statistical grounds. There were numerous attempts to replicate the study, consistently, only about one third of the studies attempting to demonstrate a self-fulfilling prophecy succeeded, and critics said that the phenomenon did not exist because the support was unreliable. TAQ 2 (752 words) Attribution theory deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal judgement (Fiske, Taylor, 1991). The aim of attribution is to understand how people interpret the words and actions of others and their own behaviour. An experiment by Thibaut and Riecken in 1955 shows how the subject perceives between someone who is on a higher status and of a lower status. In the procedure, the subject interacted with two other persons; one is of higher status than the subject and the other of a lower status. Both the person complied with the request of the subject, but when the subject was asked why each one had complied, the result was higher status compliance was put down as internal reason and external reason for the lowest status persons compliance. Furthermore, his evaluation from before to after the compliance was favoured to the highest status person. This study shows both antecedent and consequences of attributions for behaviour. In this study they adopted the ideas from Heider (1944) and Michotte (1963). It was assumed that the subject makes distinction and decides between internal and external cause for the other persons compliance on the basis of their perceived power. In attributing compliance to internal causes, positive attitudes are credited by the subject to the person. Attributing these qualities to a person has the consequence that the subject tends to like the person. In this experiment, essential element of attribution research is present. The research has hypotheses about the antecedents of causal attribution and the consequences of the subject making particular attributions (Kelley, H. and L. Michela, J.). We tend to perceive that the observed behaviour is due to the qualities of the person, dispositional attribution, rather than due to external force, situational attribution. The passenger who complains about the bus schedule is likely to be regarded as disagreeable rather than in a hurry. A respectful greeting to your manager may be offered because you like her or it may be only because of the superordinate-subordinate situation which exists between you. Heider (1958), who developed the model called the Naà ¯ve Analysis of behaviour noted that people generally tend to perceive that human behaviour is somehow caused, as it can be used by us in predicting the likelihood of this happening again, rather than being due to chance. We can make two attributions; internal attribution, we attribute the behaviour of the person in their personality, character or attitude; and external attribution, the inference that the person is behaving in a certain way because of the situation he or she may be in. Heider also noted that a person’s behaviour particularly the first impression behaviour is so compelling that observers take it at face value and forget to take sufficient account of possible situational causes. When we make attribution, we must analyse the situation by going beyond the information given about the disposition of others and yourself as well as the environment and how it may be causing the person to behave in such a manner. However, order and predictability are the consequences in making inferences and inferences lead to behaviour. Once someone is given an initial label based on his observed behaviour, the label sticks and becomes self-validating as that person will continue to behave in the way now expected of him. Another attribution theory is Kelly’s covariation model: he developed a logical model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to the person or stimulus. There are three types of causal information which influence our judgements; consistency, consensus and distinctiveness. Consistency is when cause and effect regularly occur together; for example you may notice that you felt irritable in the morning after a late night out with little sleep, in fact irritability might occur every time you have a very late night. Others also reported the late-night irritability syndrome, this means you are not unique then the consensus is high. Distinctiveness is whether or not a particular behaviour occurred in the same way in the similar situation. According to Kruglanski (1977), people do not just naively come across situation but bring to each social situation a wide range of experiences and prior knowledge. This theory lacks of distinction between intentional and uninten tional behaviour; intentional behaviour occurs when there is a desire for an outcome. Covariance treats explanation as a cognitive activity, no accounting for the social functions of explanations such as clarifying something for another person (Malle, B.F., 2003). TAQ 3 (165 words) TAQ 4 (190 words) Self-presentational behaviour is any behaviour intended to create, modify, or maintain an impression of ourselves in the minds of others. Whenever we attempt to lead people to think of us in a particular way, we are engaging in self-presentation. Self-presentation is very important aspect of our lives. How do we make others to believe that we possess various characteristic plays a huge role on our outcome in life. Self-presentation is a pervasive feature of our social life. However, self-presentational concerns also lead people to engage in behaviours that enhance their appearance but simultaneously jeopardize their own physical well-being and it even underlies self-destructive behaviour. Self-monitoring allows human to measure their behavioural outcomes against a set of standards. Small children typically do not have the ability to self-monitor, it develops overtime. The ability to both understand and internalize other’s behavioural expectations is a developmental social milestone that will occur in middle childhood. Both self-presentation and self-monitoring shaped me to the person I am today. I was able to convince people; my wife; my friends; and my colleagues that I am worthy of their love, their friendship, their trust and their respect. TAQ 5 (156 words) There are many factors involved, such as proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness in the formation of relationships. It was found out that the friendliest person were those who live near on another. â€Å"Those who play together stay together†, in other words those who share similar interest in leisure activities form relationship. People of the same race, gender, age, and social background are likely to form a relationship. Person who are either similar â€Å"birds of the same feather flocks together† or that â€Å"opposites attract† forms a relationship. Physical attractiveness is also an important factor in formation of relationship, when we first meet someone their physical appearance is the first thing that will strike us before anything else. Jade’s date didn’t work out for her because as I have said above, her date didn’t have any of the factors. He faked his photo, his description and his job so Jade and his date had nothing in common basically. TAQ 6 (235 words) The main assumption of the social exchange theory (SET) is that individuals try to maximise their rewards; affection and attention and reduce their costs; time and effort. SET helps us understand the cost and rewards of relationships and it helps us predict how to keep and sustain relationships. However, it also has some weaknesses, SET neglects culture context. SET is based on a reward concept but not all cultures seek for a reward in a relationship. SET makes people seems individualistic and a reward seeking. Equity theory extends the SET, it takes into account that rewards need to be proportionate, this is based in the assumption that people expect that a relationship to be fair. People will feel satisfied if what they put into the relationship is comparable with what they get out of it. Aspects of equity theory were unable to predict whether a relationship will be maintained or break down. According to Balance theory we tend to be friends or to choose friends those people who help us maintain our balance view of the world. One simple advantage is that it recognizes that people sometimes notice inconsistent cognitions and that this inconsistency can lead to attitude change. It predicts how people will react to imbalanced and balanced situations. However, one consistent problem is that the predictions don’t work very well. Balance theory does not make any prediction about how imbalanced will be resolved. TAQ 7 (110 words) Mechanical failure is when two suitable people of goodwill and good nature grow apart, where communication may be poor or interactions go badly is the most common cause of relationship breakdown. Long term relationships often fail due to lack of common activities, as well as individual hobbies, interest and friends. If both partners do not grow equally one partner might feel that they are carrying the load. In Scenario 2 the youngest child is now completing his GCSE, couples shares responsibility in rearing their children and this is their common interest. Since their younger son is becoming less of their common interest, it can become a cause of the problem. TAQ 8 (219 words) Stages of Dissolution (Ducks Phase Model) Stage I The Intrapsychic phase Thinking about relationship in private, beginning to consider there is a problem in the relationship. Stage II The Dyadic phase The dissatisfaction is discussed. This is when the troubled partner confronts the other and tries to correct these problems. Stage III The Social phase At this point the decision is made by one or both partners to leave the relationship. The breakdown is made public. Stage IV The Grave Dressing phase A post-relationship view of the breakup is established; both of the partners go through self-justification; protecting self-esteem and rebuilding life towards new relationships. In 2006 Duck and Rollie added a fifth stage, Resurrection phase, when individual evaluate the relationship and attempting to re-instigate the relationship again. One of the strength of this model is that it gives some insight into possible techniques that can be used so that the relationship can be repaired. It also has face validity as it is an account of relationship breakdown that we can relate to our own and others experiences Brehm and Kassin (1996) sees the limitation of this study in that the women are more likely to stress unhappiness and incompatibility as reasons for breakup while men blame lack of sex suggesting gender differences that the model does not consider. TAQ 9 (93 words) Love relationships are one of the greatest sources of happiness and meaning for every human being. Even the strongest relationships get off track sometimes because of the stresses of daily living, and mismatch expectations. The HEAL (Hear-Empathize-Act-Love) technique to repair damaged relationships by replacing defensive self-protection with compassionate presence and loving connection (Greenberg, M., 2013). Hear – to listen to your partner, stay present and be there. Empathize – allow your partner’s experience deeply affect you, share the feelings. Act address the concerns and show willingness to change. Love – feel and express unconditional love. References Asch, (1946) as cited in https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7oeILtwkxoCprintsec=frontcoversource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0#v=onepageqf=false  Date last accessed: 22 January 2015 Brehm and Kassin (1996) as cited in DLcentre workbook Module 6 Social Interaction Level 3. Cowan Curtis, 1994 as cited in http://www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page9.htm  Date last accessed: 26 Feb 2015 Cozzarelli, Wilkinson, Tagler, 2001 as cited in http://www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page9.htm  Date last accessed: 26 Feb 2015 Eysenc, M. (2002). Simply Psychology. [Online]. 2nd Edition.  East Sussex: Psychology Press. Accessed 22 January 2015.  Available at:  https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7oeILtwkxoCprintsec=frontcoversource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0#v=onepageqf=false Greenberg, M., 2013. Four Steps to Relationship Repair With The H-E-A-L Technique. [online].  Available at: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-mindful-self-express/201304/four-steps-relationship-repair-the-h-e-l-technique  Accessed: 12 February 2015 Heider (1944) as cited in http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/attribution_theory_and_research.pdf   Kelley, H. and L. Michela, J. Attribution Theory and Research. [online].  Available at: http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/attribution_theory_and_research.pdf  Accessed: 19 March 2015 Kruglanski, 1977 as cited in DLCentre Ltd., 2009/11 Module 6. Social Interaction level 3 Lerner, 1980; Montada Lerner, 1998 as cited in http://www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page9.htm  Date last accessed: 26 Feb 2015 Malle, B.F., 2003. Attributions as Behavior Explanations: Toward a New Theory. [Online]. Available at: http://cogprints.org/3314/1/Explanation_theory_03.pdf  Accessed: 09 February 2015 Michotte(1963) as cited in http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/attribution_theory_and_research.pdf Payne, S and Walker, J. (1996). Psychology for Nurses and the Caring Profession. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Rosenberg et al, (1968) as cited in https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7oeILtwkxoCprintsec=frontcoversource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0#v=onepageqf=false  Date last accessed: 22 January 2015 Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) as cited in Payne, S and Walker, J. (1996). Psychology for Nurses and the Caring Profession. S. Nauts et al. Forming Impressions of Personality. [online].  Available at: http://selfregulationlab.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Nauts-et-al-2014-Asch.pdf  Accessed: 25 February 2015   Tagler, 2001; Schuller, Smith, Olson, 1994 as cited in http://www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page9.htm  Date last accessed: 26 Feb 2015 Thibaut Riecken (1955) as cited in http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/attribution_theory_and_research.pdf

Welcoming Country

Today, Many people in our society have faced many challenges whether it is because of their religion, gender, physical ability and sexual orientation. The United states has always prided themselves to be an open and welcoming country that does not judge one another on any basis. Under this administration the challenges that many immigrants are facing have become greater than ever. Hate crimes against the jewish people have been occurring way more frequently now. Many people in the United States have Xenophobia where they think their country, and their way of life is far superior than everyone else's, and when someone comes in from another country they tend to not accept them or even want to talk to them. Since 911 happened people tend to associate every muslim as a terrorist and they come here to this country to get the opportunities that everyone else has and they are not getting it because Islamophobia. Many young black teens are at a disadvantage because many schools have the zero tolerance policies that end up pushing them out of the school and into the juvenile and the criminal justice system instead of giving them a chance and help within the school system. The United States has come a long way over the years from slavery, and not letting women vote but many improvements can be made for us to truly become a country that accepts all people no matter if they're black, white a women or gay. Furthermore if this country wants a better future for their children then we have to work on these issues and have to become more open minded when it comes to immigrants, religion, women, and people who are gay that are in this country. Women have also gone through struggles facing discrimination because of gender. They have being doing the same job that men do but a lot of the time they do not get the same pay. It was not until the civil war that women were even allowed to work. Women were not hired for jobs that were considered jobs for males. In the 1960's women only occupied two percent of managerial positions. This showed that gender discriminations was still prevalent.This portrait that women had to accept jobs which did not require high skill nor get high pay. Even with all these issues women were strong and gathered in groups to fight these issues. In time, gender discrimination against women in the workforce has alleviated. In 1963 the equal pay act for women was passed meaning that men and women doing the same job had to get the same amount of pay or it was illegal. Groups like The National Organization of women were formed to help women get the same rights that men had like being able to play the same sports in college. Women are essential to society because they are just as capable as men and they have proved themselves in the workforce time and time again. An important reason why people come to this country is to be able to practice their religion freely and openly without any prohibition, harm or even trying to be oppressed . The founding fathers of our nation came to this country to practice their religion. Although, one of the roots of immigration into this country was the search for freedom of religion, many entities have been discriminated as a people. If we take a look at our history, we can find some examples. One of them is General Ulysses S. Grant who issued an order to take out the Jewish people from states Tennessee,Kentucky, and mississippi that were under his control. Most of the states in the U.S do not let people of the same sex marry. Within the last ten years states have been letting up, and are letting gays and lesbians marry each other under the law. These people have been discriminated since this country has been formed . When HIV first came out it was known as a â€Å"gay man's disease † meaning that you had to be gay to get that disease. Donald Trump and vice president Mike Pence do not believe in gay marriage and this is another barrier facing the LGBT community. They have been targeted and bullied in many schools around the country. Sexual discrimination was seen in the armed forces. Commanders used to launch what they called â€Å"witch hunts† to find gay troops and boot them out of the service. Many citizens that do not have the physical ability have been left behind and not taken care of the way they should be. These people for a long time and still today get bullied in school, have no friends, and do not get the support that they need and deserve to be able to do the things that they want. A lot of times these people get harassed in the workplace because they do not have the same ability as others. To help these people out the government passed a law called American with disabilities act to ensure that people with disabilities get proper accommodation in the workforce and also get protection under being fired just solely because they are disabled. I have learned a lot in the course. All the issues that this country is facing surrounding racism and people accepting one another for who they are and what they represent. I have also been exposed to many different things like people's cultures and the hardships that they face on a daily basis. The class has made me more aware of how deeply discrimination exists in our society, and the struggles that people have gone through to overcome make our country a more acceptable society. I learned that we have gains but still have a long way to go. After taking taking this class I have become a better person. Fixing these issues that society fights as a whole is not an easy task. In order to make changes with have to start with our young generations, and make it an empathize in the school systems to teach and focus on accepting one another no matter what the circumstances surrounding that person. Once we make the citizens aware that no matter what we believe, or how different we look, or whatever sexual orientation and gender we may be we are all part of the human race. If we make these social changes starting with our young children then this country will get back on track to fulfill its promise of being a nation which accepts everyone no matter color, race, gender. Furthermore we have to elect politicians that follows these ideologies that we are looking to have in this country. Many people in our society have faced many challenges whether it is because of their religion, gender, physical ability, and sexual orientation. This country has come a long way from discriminating against these groups but we still have a lot of work to do if we want this country to be fully accepting of everyone. A lot of these issues that we face as a culture need to be stopped from the top down. If the president can become more open and tolerant of others then that would be a major step in fixing this mess between different groups. What I have discussed in this essay about the current trend of racism, sexism and discrimination is not new, As the famous adage goes†History repeats itself†. At the founding of our american democracy with the Declaration of Independence (`1776) and the US Constitution (1789)all men were supposed to be equal under the law. However, women did not receive the right to vote until the year 1919 with the adoption of the 19th amendment of the constitution. Most states did not allow married women to keep their property until the beginning of the 20th century. Prior to the 29th century , women's legal status was that of chattel- they were the legal property of their Husbands and fathers. The few women from the late 19th century to the mid twentieth century who were able to get law degrees, medical and engineering degrees found themselves underemployed because employers did not want to hire women in these professions. It wasn't until the late 1970 that most states passed discriminations law to protect bias agent gender. Historically, Blacks have also been discriminated the legal and political system of our country. Although the 13th amendment ended slavery in 1865 and the 14th amendment (1868)guaranteed equal protection under the law for all persons, segregation and the denial of voting rights to blacks and other racial minorities persisted until the adoption of the federal voting rights in 1965. Discrimination in job hiring and access to housing was also rampant until the adoption of the Civil rights Acts in 1964. Historically, many different immigrant groups were discriminated and prevented from entering the United States. For example, the chinese exclusion act enacted in 1882 prohibited immigration of all chinese laborers even though –ironically– previous generations of chinese laborers were exploited to build the great railroad system that expanded the wealth and growth of the continental United States. Many of these laws were not repealed until after the second world war in 1948. Other ethnic groups (e.g. Irish and eastern europeans) had strict limited quotas for entry into the United States. Finally, protection from discrimination based on sexual orientation has only recently been enacted by only 24 states. There is still no federal civil rights protection based upon sexual orientation. Hence, for example, in the states of North Carolina and MIssissippi employers can fire or deny promotions to gay employees. We should remind ourselves of this history as we put into perspective the need to recognize and address the current problems of discrimination based on gender, race, ethnic origin and sexual orientation.

Essay about Capital Punishment An Ongoing Arguement

Since the year 1608, over 15,269 people have been executed in the United States and its predecessor colonies (Smykla, and Espy). With the multitude of persons executed, there is still little evidence proving the effectiveness of capital punishment when concerning future violent crime rates. The death penalty is also costly when compared to the cost of imprisoning a violent criminal for life. With such a definitive punishment and with its finality, there have also been a large number of persons executed who were in fact shown to be innocent at a later time. Although there is a lengthy history of the death penalty in the United States, there is an immense disparity in regards to those who support capital punishment and those who wish to†¦show more content†¦There also are beliefs that Capital Punishment leads to more crime as criminals may murder witnesses to avoid being arrested and facing the death penalty, as well as executions by States devalue human life. Studies have also been completed using states with and without capital punishment as well as a comparison of crime rates during the four years between 1972 and 1976 when the Supreme Court ruled capital punishment was unconstitutional which have presented little evidence regarding capital punishment decreasing crime rates. While there is little evidence supporting the deterrence of the effects of capital punishment on crime rates, the death penalty costs a great deal amount of money when compared to a life prison sentence. In an article written in the Miami Herald by V. Drehle, regarding the cost of capital punishment when compared to life imprisonment in Florida, the true cost of each execution amounts to approximately $3.2 million or about six times the cost of what it would cost to keep a prisoner in prison for all of his or her natural life (Drehle 12A, col. 1). With such a high cost, and the overcrowding of prisons in the present, it seems hardly rationale for the exorbitant amount of spending on those criminals who have inflicted the greatest amount of grief in society. Prisons are overcrowded and budgets across the country are in distress, it is not logical or fiscally responsible to spend such a large

The Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald - 1463 Words

The Great Gatsby? People hear this title and think of the movie, the movie that got 351 dollars worldwide. The movie directed by Buz Luhrmann and the movie with a story line that follows a book. What book? Of course it has the same title. Written in 1925 by F. Scott Fitzgerald, â€Å"The Great Gatsby† the book has have been people reading the novel to this day. In the book, there are so many layers that need to be peeled in order to analysis the deeper meanings of the book. psychoanalysis therorism does prove out how unconscious behaviors caused characters like Gatsby to drive to bigger goals destructively because of the past, also by what method defenses such as selective perception, selective memory and denial played a part in the book when†¦show more content†¦Out of all the characters, the one and only Jay Gatsby drive for many desires to satisfy himself. First of he was born poor, never fit in with old money as he wanted. Brought up poor, he didn’t get wha t others did like a good reputation. This drove him crazy, he lead to being partners with Wolfshiem and became part of illegal business. At the end of the novel when someone calls nick thinking it was Gatsby the man says â€Å"Young Parke’s in trouble,† he said rapidly. â€Å"They picked him up when he handed the bonds over the counter. They got a circular from New York giving ’em the numbers just five minutes before. What d’you know about that, hey? You never can tell in these hick towns——† (Fitzgerald 174). Plus, when Nick tried to get in contact with Wolfshiem, there was no contact information and criminals never wanted to be reached out that easily. This is proof that Gatsby did some illegal things to get the wealth he had. He was motivated to not be the person he was as a kid, he took extreme measures to become the exact opposite. In the past Gatsby was poor and nothing compared to Tom, he knew he wouldn’t have been able t o take care of Daisy which made him drive for higher dreams. He bought expensive cars, a mansion across from Daisy, servants, land all that to impress his love. He didn’t care if Daisy fell in love with him and cheated on her husband, he would anything even illegally to get the money and supplies to get Daisy back. Another part of psychoanalysis therorism